A Taste of Honey Essay Example for Free

A Taste of Honey Essay Act two, scene one is an important part of the play because Jo is near the end of her pregnancy and Helen comes back to visit her but only because Geoff had asked her too. Previously in the play Helen had married Peter and had gone to live with him, Jo got engaged to a black boy in the Navy, she became pregnant but he didnt come back after going away with the Navy. Jo didnt have a very good relationship with her mother and they had moved about a lot as Helen ran every time she couldnt pay the rent. Jo met Geoff who is a homosexual. He hasnt had sexual relations with a man but he knows he is gay because he has had liaisons with other men. Jo has left school and was going to work in a pub part-time. The play is A Taste of Honey and I am doing part of Act two scene one where Jo, Helen and Geoff are the main characters. This play is mainly set in Jo and Helens flat where the time is around the 1950s. Helen and Jo werent very well off so the flat is in a poor condition. It is dirty and there is a lot of dust. The house looks like it is uncared for because clothes are on the floor and the bed isnt made. It is a comfortless flat. If I was in the audience I would see the settee in the middle of the flat with Geoffs bedding on it, to the left of the stage would be Jos unmade bed it might have some clothes lying untidily on top of it. To the right I would see the kitchen, the sink full of dirty plates and cups, and there would be lots of things scattered about the kitchen sides. In this section of the play the characters use actions in different ways to portray their emotions and feelings. For example: at the beginning of this section Geoff says Let me kiss you this lets us know that Geoff likes Jo as more then a friend unfortunately she does not feel the same way. This is shown when she struggles as Geoff forces himself on her. Another show of Geoffs feelings towards Jo are when he asks her to marry him, Jo just dismisses the idea and tells Geoff Im not marrying anybody. When Helen arrives she tries to be motherly towards Jo but Jo doesnt really want to know as Helen hasnt really been there for her whilst she has been growing up. I dont think she understands why Helen suddenly wants to be a proper mother so Jo starts an argument by saying what blew you in as soon as Helen comes in to the room. But Helen still tries to by friendly by asking about Geoff, she also tries to change the subject at that point when Jo asks her how she came to know about her pregnancy she replies Come on, arent you going to introduce me to your boy friend? Who is he?. I think at that point Helen hadnt come to argue with Jo and had come to see if she was alright. When Jo and Helen are angry they both speak their mind and tend to shout when arguing. Jo talks in a steady voice and when speaking to Geoff she talks in a soft voice but her voice is stern when she is speaking to Helen as I feel she is resentful towards her. Helen talks to Jo as if she regrets having her and wishes shed aborted her like all the others, in this scene though Helen starts off friendly but finishes by chasing Jo around the room trying to hit her. Geoff is the calm one; he doesnt stand up for himself much but tries to protect Jo. When Geoff is told to do something he does it without complaining. This play is important to theatre history, as it was the first play ever seen about real life and the problems that came with it like poverty, racism, teenage pregnancies and homophobia. This play had them all in. At the time this play was written Britain was just recovering from shortages and rationing, the rationing ended in 1952. Housing was scarce so many people had to live in flats even if they could afford better and bomb sites were still derelict. Shelagh Delaney was the author of this play and she was 19 years old when she wrote it. It was written in 1956 and censorship from the stage was removed in 1963. A Taste of Honey is what you would call a kitchen-sink drama because it is based on real life, problems, poverty and the working class.

Examining the gender inequalities at work

Examining the gender inequalities at work Many feminists concentrate on gender inequality, particularly inequality in paid employment. Postmodernists place little emphasis on paid work, but both Marxist feminist and liberal feminists see employment opportunities as crucial to understanding gender inequalities. Liberal feminists have argued that a combination of legislation and changed attitudes can open up economic opportunities for women. Equal opportunity legislation In 1970 the Equal Pay Act legislated that women should be paid the same as men for doing the same or broadly similar work. In 1984 an amendment stipulated that women should get equal pay for work of equal value. The 1975 Sex Discrimination Act made discrimination on the grounds of sex illegal in employment, education and the provision of goods and services. Legislation was further strengthened by the 2006 Equality Act required all public bodies to take an active role in removing illegal discrimination against women. Despite these changes in the law, and considerable increases in recent years in the proportion of women who work in Britain, women remain disadvantaged at work: The proportion of the labour force who are female has risen considerably. In 1971 92% of men of working age were employed and 56% of women. By 2005 80% of men were employed and 70% of women (Social Trends 2006, p.52). In 2005 42% of women were part-time workers and 10% of men. In 2004 67% of women with dependent children worked (Social Trends 2006, p.54). Gender and earnings Women continue to be less well paid than men. In 1970 women working full-time earned 63% of the average full-time male wage; by 2005 they were still only getting 82% of the average male wage (EOC, 1997, 2002a; New Earnings Survey 2005). Horizontal segregation where men and women tend to have different types of job also continues. Women tend to be employed in areas such as personal services, administration, hotels and restaurants. Most routine clerical and secretarial workers are women, as are most primary teachers. Men tend to dominate in areas such as manufacturing, construction and transport. The proportion of women managers and professionals has increased recently. The Women and Work Commission (2006) found 75% of pharmacists, 40% of accountants, almost 50% of lawyers and over 30% of doctors were women. The Equal Opportunities Report (2006) reveals the absence of women in elite positions across a number of occupations, and comments that at the present rate of progress it would 50 years before half of top directors were women and 200 years before women were equally represented in the House of Commons, whereby as many female MPs as male MPs. Vertical segregation continues i.e. men predominate in higher paid jobs whilst women predominate in lower paid ones. For example, in 2005 83% of directors and chief executives were men, 74% of waiting staff were women. Men predominate in all the higher paid lobs except personnel, training and industrial relations managers; while women predominate in all the lower-paid jobs except sports and leisure assistants, where the number of men and women are equal. Generally, the more senior the position, the lower the proportion of women. According to the Equal Opportunities Commission report Sex and Power: Who Runs Britain? (EOC, 2006), women are under-represented in elite positions. In 2004 only 9% of senior judges, 10% of senior police officers and 13% of national newspaper editors were women. Women held only 10.5% of the directorships of the FTSE 100 companies and 19.7% of MPs and 27.3% of cabinet ministers were female. Although most teachers are female, in 2004 only 31.8% of head teachers were women. In 2005, less than 1% of senior ranks in the armed forces and only 10.2% of senior police officers were female. The report notes some improvements in the representation of women but calculates that at current rates of change it would take 40% before 50% of top directors were female, and 200 years before there were as many female as male MPs. LINK SOCIAL WORK TO ABOVE.+REPHRASE MUCH OF ABOVE/SUMMARISE/CUT+CARE SECTOR STATISTICS Explanations for gender inequalities Textbook pp. 124-131 Functionalism Human capital theory suggests that women are less valuable to employers than men because they are less committed to work and more likely to take career breaks to raise children. This gives employers less incentive to promote women and invest in their training. However, a study by Peter Sloane (1994) found that gender continued to influence pay even when qualifications and experience were taken into account. Catherine Hakim preference theory Hakim (2004) argues that women now have more choice, and inequality stems from personal preference. Women have better labour market opportunities than ever before due to amongst others the contraceptive revolution from about 1965. The equal opportunities revolution and the expansion of white collar occupations as well as the expansion of jobs for secondary earners. This has led, according to Hakim, to the emergence of three types of women: Adaptive women who combine both paid work and family. This group is about two thirds of women who seek flexible or part-time work. Another type is described as work-centred women, these women are a minority who focus on career and fit family life around it, this group is less than 20% of women, so men will continue to dominate the workplace. Finally, home-centred women are women who prefer not to work. This group is about 20% of women, including some who are well qualified. Crompton (1996), however, found no evidence of clear-cut categories among women working in banking and pharmacy in Britain and France. Houston Marks (2003) found many factors other than personal preference influenced womens attitude towards paid employment. Abbott et al (2005) criticize Hakim for ignoring structural constraints which limit and shape womens choices. ***CONTINUE FROM HERE -P126 (P121-130) The dual labour market theory The dual labour market theory developed by Barron Norris (1976) distinguishes between: The primary labour market of well-paid, fairly secure jobs with prospects; The secondary labour market of poorly paid, insecure jobs with few prospects. Employers try hard to attract and retain primary workers, who are seen as key to the success of their enterprises, but secondary workers are seen as easily replaced. It is difficult to transfer from the secondary to the primary labour market, and women tend to be concentrated in the secondary sector. This is due in part to employer sexism but also to factors such as lack of unionization. Beechey (1986) sees women as a cheap reserve army of labour, brought in during economic booms but thrown out during slumps. This creates flexibility for capitalists and depresses overall wage levels. Women tend to be in the reserve army because: they are often not in unions; they may be prepared to work for less if their wage is a second income; they are seen as combining work with domestic responsibilities. However, this theory cannot explain horizontal segregation. Also, the continued growth of female employment suggests that women are not being used purely as a temporary, reserve army of workers. McDowell (1992) applies post-Fordist theory to female employment. Post-Fordism suggests that there has been a move away from mass production to more flexible production of specialist products. Businesses keep a core of highly skilled workers, but most other workers are temporary or part-time, or work is contracted out to other firms. Women tend to be concentrated in the more flexible jobs, particularly part-time work, although some have benefited from gaining core jobs. Research by Lovering (1994) found evidence to support this theory in some companies but not in others, suggesting that post-Fordist trends affect only some workers. Some feminists stress the role of male trade unionists in restricting womens opportunities. Walby (1986) argues that in some areas (for example, engineering) trade unions have used exclusion to disadvantage women, while in industries such as textiles, women have been disadvantaged by confinement to certain lower-paid areas of work. Low-paid work ensures that women are more likely to take on domestic responsibilities than men. Radical feminists see patriarchy rather than capitalism as the main cause of female disadvantage. Stanko (1988) argues that sexual harassment in the workplace is used to keep women in their place. Men use their power in the workplace to protect their position. Women in jobs such as bar work and secretarial work are sexualized, and are not taken as seriously as workers or considered for promotion. Adkins (1995) goes further, arguing that sexual work has become integral to many womens jobs. In service sector jobs where women have contact with men they are expected to engage in sexual servicing: looking attractive, engaging in sexual banter, tolerating sexual innuendo and so on. The Women and Work Commission (2006) argues that reform, legislation and tackling sexist socialization can solve the problem of unequal pay. They argue that: Gender stereotyping in schools, in careers advice, and in work experience programmes, is based on traditional roles. This results in the concentration of women in lower-paid occupations. The Commission pointed out that the media could challenge these cultural expectations two thirds of forensic science students are now women. Combining work and family life leads to women taking career breaks and working part-time. Gosling (2005) found a single year working part-time before returning to full-time work led to a 10-15% reduction in pay, largely due to the quality of the part-time work available. Women need more opportunities for lifelong training. Workplace practices often disadvantage women. Job evaluations which rank male-dominated jobs more highly than female ones, even though these jobs have a similar skill level, need to be challenged. 1302 ADD GENDER ROLE AND STEREOTYPES AS PROHIBETER OF SEXES CROSS OVER TO DOMINENT SEX CAREER ROLES. 1605-1626

Effect of Beijing Olympic Venues on China

Effect of Beijing Olympic Venues on China Section One: Identification of research area (10% 250 words) In this section you will be expected to identify an area of research. You must justify it as an area of research in your academic field; explain why it is topic of importance, why it is of interest and how it will help for the industry your subject area is located in. Research question: Did the venues built for the Olympic Games in Beijing have a positive effect for china? This research topic exemplifies an excellent business model for growth and change and an opportunity to exact best practice for a city in need of renovation, inspired by the International presence of the Olympic Games. It seeks to demonstrate the cause and effect of long-term change and sustainable development that can occur and the value placed upon often risk-taking investment by way of national necessity. From a business perspective the research will focus on determining what the economic, social, political and technological implications have been for China in the light of their internationally profiled focus on making the city of Beijing a more environmentally stable location, having been rated one of the most predominantly polluted and energy and resource hungry cities in the world. The Olympic Village itself contained a number of innovative technologies including a heat pump system, solar collectors, water saving devices, and rainwater collection. Introducing the use of sewage water is likely to save tons of coal each year The Olympic Village also contains a vacuum glass tube solar collection system installed on the buildings roofs which heats tap water. There are water collection tubes installed as part of the roof gardens on the buildings. The 2008 Headquarters Office has estimated that this solar heating system will save nearly 2,400 tons of coal per year. This building will now function as a kindergarten following the Games and the Olympic Village will serve as a residential area. The architecture was designed to save as much energy as possible, through, for instance, orienting the building to take in sunlight in winter, and an exterior sun shading system to cool the inner spaces in summer time.[1] Overall the environmental design and construction of these buildings and surrounding carbon neutral woods, parks and greenbelt areas paved the way for the implementation of new systems that impacted on air quality, energy use, transportation, water, forests and toxics and waste across the city which has influenced the way in which China as one of the most rapidly developing nations in the World is now appreciating its responsibilities to exact environmental standards universally. Beijing now provides an example of China’s commitment to expand in an environmentally cautious way. Section Two: Setting your research aim(s) and objectives (15%) State your research questions, develop a research aim and set your objectives. The hypotheses for this research will aim to answer the question as to whether the building and environmental measures adopted that took place in Beijing for the benefit of the Olympic Games has impacted at all significantly on the wider future appreciation by China to adapt its buildings, resource usage and the subsequent way in which it will continue to conduct its business. This will need to be achieved by presenting the changes that occurred in Beijing, prior, during and following the Olympic Games, to assess the environmental objectives that were woven into the design and implementation of all its new venues and landscapes. A comprehensive summary of the types of buildings and venues that were constructed for the benefit of the Olympic Games in Beijing will need to be provided. Once this has been established, the ways in which these environmental additions proved successful can be measured alongside their sustainability and productivity from a business and environmental perspective. An historical evaluation of the city before it became the chosen host of the games will need to take place in terms of investigating its original economic, political, environmental and technological situation and how this was viewed globally by other nations, as well as in relation to China itself. This will then build an understanding of the way in which the city function ed in comparison to how it now functions in 2008; whether any significant changes have occurred in its growth and fiscal situation. Consequently evidence to support how China has responded to the success of these buildings in relation to the way in which they have increased Beijing’s political, economic and social standing will need to be ascertained with regard to whether this has raised the profile of China generally around the world. Evidence of influence and genuine impact will need to be provided. Section Three: Literature Review (25% 1000 words) Identify the areas of secondary literature you need to be looking (The subject areas which will assist you (Think theoretical areas) Then you will need to give a prà ©cis of the main issues, indicating their relevance to your subject. Literature reviews should also raise issues and develop an argument in the literature if possible. The purpose of this study is to demonstrate the fundamental rationale for determining the best way in which to build a framework to take forward a research paper tackling the subject of the effects of Leisure Tourism on a whole nation. Examples of literature will be illustrated through a variety of texts, journals and internet references in order to demonstrate the numerous academic theories and examples that can help shape a contextualised argument exploring a number of hypotheses. The investigative approach for determining the question Did the venues built for the Olympic Games in Beijing have a positive effect for china? can be measured and rationalised by way of several hypothesis; What is the political, economic, technological and social background of Beijing prior to it being awarded host city to the 2008 Olympic Games? How does China function currently as one of the World’s most developing countries economically, what type and level of resources does it use in order to sustain its growth? What was the nature, design remit and approach to building in Beijing in relation to preparing for the Olympic Games and how was it influenced to apply an environmental approach – what physically was constructed and for what purposes? Has the city’s reconstruction made an impact on its environmental situation at all? How has this been communicated to the rest of the world and consequently raised the profile of China? A number of sources relating to these questions can be utilised from journals, texts, reports and online material that will form the fundamental framework to this study and the dissertation will flow in accordance with these lines of reasoning. In order to demonstrate the history of Beijing and its context within China there are a number of sources of material Growth Without Miracles: Readings on the Chinese Economy in the Era of Reform illustrates Chinas economic reform during the second half of the twentieth century. How not just the living conditions of the Chinese population but through its economic transition from central planning to a market economy. The book is complied of thirty widely-cited articles by well known economists in the field of China studies.[2] The Cambridge Handbook of Contemporary China by Colin Mackerras and Amanda Yorke emphasizes China’s openness to Western technology as well as its rejection of Western democratic ideals. This volume offers up-to-date information on all aspects of Chinese life since 1949, with particular emphasis on the 1980s. Maps and tabled statistics accompany the text relating to all areas of Chinese life. China in the Global Economy Environment, Water Resources and Agr icultural Policies: Lessons from China and OECD Countries, by Nong ye bu informs the reader about Chinas water resources which are extremely low, poorly distributed, and increasingly polluted and how Chinas future development depends on initiatives that will raise the efficiency of how water is used. More specific to Beijing many studies have been conducted over the years into the environmental affects of this busy expanding city. One example can be found in Air pollution and daily mortality in residential areas of Beijing, China. Is a research paper which documents the relationship between air pollution and daily mortality in 1989 two residential areas in Beijing, China. ‘A highly significant association was found between [sulfur dioxide] and daily mortality.The association of [total suspended particulates] with total daily mortality was positive but not significant.In the cause-specific analysis, the strongest effects on mortality were consistently seen for respiratory diseases in both [summer and winter].’ [3] The most modern analysis of the processes undertaken by Beijing in the run-up to the ensuing Olympic objectives for the city are highlighted in The Concrete Dragon: Chinas Urban Thomas J. Campanella discusses China’s great building boom that there were fewer than 200 cities in China in the late 1970s compared to the 700 odd today. The scale of China’s urban revolution is detailed, alongside its roaring economy and rapid urbanization elsewhere compared to the rest of the world. In relation to articles and journal citations this area of understanding is well documented. Most useful examples can be gained from examining Spectacular Beijing: The Conspicuous Construction of an Olympic Metropolis which presents a critical review of Beijings Olympic redevelopment, and of the social, economic, and political impacts of hosting ‘mega events’ as a means of urban image construction. How Beijings restructure played an important role in Chinas transition to capitalism as the Olympics have helped concentrate economic and political power in the hands of a coalition of government leaders and private investors. [4] (Broudehoux, 2007) With similar information to be accessed from New Beijing, Great Olympics: Beijing and its Unfolding Olympic Legacy by Ryan Ong and Olympiad Dreams of Urban Renaissance by Rob Imrie. In terms of the most recent analysis carried out in relation to the impact of the games physically and financially, this is a well documented area of dialogue in the media and with scholars. Estimating the Cost and Benefit of Hosting Olympic Games: What Can Beijing Expect from Its 2008 Games? Represents a forecast of what will ensue as a result of the impact on Beijing whilst anticipating ‘The potential for long term economic benefits from the Beijing Games will depend critically on how well Olympics related investments in venues and infrastructure can be incorporated into the overall economy in the years following the Games.’[5](Owen, 2005) For a more generic approach to this argument James Higham’s Sport as an Avenue of Tourism Development: An Analysis of the Positive and Negative Impacts of Sport Tourism looks at the positive economic repercussions for cities who host the Olympic Games. As this is still quite a modern debate it is difficult to source a great deal of scholarly information that determines the subsequent impact to be had on China as a whole. Evidence for this is still emerging and it is suggested that news archives, economic reports and environmental reviews be explored in greater detail in order to address the outcomes of the question under discussion. Many have prophesized or forecast this debate but for factual information a most up to date study of observations being reported from China will be required to substantiate the debate. Another helpful source can be utilized from documents associated with the Beijing Municipal Government and United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP). The most relevant of these being the UNEP report Beijing 2008 Olympic Games – An Environmental Review and the official Beijing Organizing Committee for the Olympic Games paper Beijing 2008: Environmental Protection, Innovation and Improvement, 2001-2006, Update Report. Section Four: Research Methodology and Design (10% 500 words) Here you will need to focus on the types of methods you intend to use and why. Why for instance will you use one research method over another or why do you need to use more than one method? As a rule of thumb, think about The problem being addressed in this dissertation is to attempt to demonstrate evidence that is both economic and environmental, not only to Beijing but in the broader context of China and how this has essentially been strengthened by the influences of leisure and tourism. It is necessary to conduct considerable research across a number of areas in order to reach the conclusions that will effectively answer the question. Many dissertations of this nature require a definitive method of research in order to build a framework to take forward the means to answering the hypothesis. For the purposes of this essay the way in which the methodology for developing this framework came about is primarily informed by the Literature Review. This type of secondary analysis helps clarify both the type of information available as well as the limitations of that material. Burns’s An Introduction to Tourism and Anthropology demonstrates the fast-growing field of tourism studies. How anthropology is the window through which tourism dynamics should be analyzed and evaluated. [6] In terms of assessing the impact of tourism and how in the case of Beijing it acted as a catalyst for change as well as changing the world’s opinion of the region; this volume suggests an anthropological approach to research, in other words statistical data to explain the phenomena under discussion. Appreciating that this may be the best way of assessing an outcome with which to measure impact, Tourism and leisure research methods: data collection, analysis and interpretation provides the tools to recognise and produce good research through qualitative and quantitative research techniques focusing on reliability, validity and representativeness of data using SPSS for Windows and an SPSS data file to undertake statistical analysis, data management and data documentat ion. In terms of the business studies approach to solving this question, carrying out quantitative research which in the context of Social Sciences includes a wide range of examples and activities offers a solid foundation in research design, measurement, and statistics.’ [7] Applying quantitative research to this study should help develop and create a model for the hypotheses and measure the connection between the data received from the Government and UN reports cited in the Literature Review alongside the empirical results fielded from any contrasting qualitative research that emerges from subsequent interviews, surveys or observations collated from relevant citizens of Beijing, China, officials connected with the construction programmes and the Construction and Environment department of the Beijing Organising Committee as well as analysing relevant documents and material. With the emphasis on quantitative research methods this will largely involve planning, sampling, designing measurement instruments, choosing statistical tests, and interpreting the results [8] In order to effectively analyse leisure and tourism within the business, management and environmental disciplines a number of factors will need to be taken into consideration including anthropology, the economics of China, the history of its growth exemplified by Beijing, human geography, the philosophy and sociology of the environment. Fieldwork will need to be planned and conducted according to ethnographic methods including participant observation, interviewing, focus groups, and video/photographic work to capture and appreciate the changes occurring in China and the move towards an environmentally more astute philosophy. [9] Section Five: Your reflection on the overall process (15% 200 words) Sum up your reflections on the whole research methods process, how you coped with it and how you will approach final year study. This can be in the first person (i.e. ‘I think this I think that.’). This is a fairly challenging area of study which requires the collation of a number of different areas of research to be processed and analysed. In order to quantify and qualify data such as this from a fundamentally empirical approach it is imperative to categorize the subjects or ‘instruments’ in much greater detail. For example should the data be gathered from specific areas in order to provide a holistic approach to determining the question, if so should these reflect economic, social, political and technological affects and form the categories that make up the focus of the discussion points? The need to establish a well thought out framework is crucial. It seems very clear from all of the complexities involved with assessing the impact of construction and technology for the purposes of staging the Olympic Games and how it can best be implemented requires further attention in terms of what is achievable and justifiable in this study. Primary research needs to be completed in order to establish the exact nature and challenges of existing opinions, observations and comparisons relating to the city of Beijing; compared to official government documentation, measured in relation to the overall accepted international objectives of China as a nation in its own right. The different actors, cultures, structures and goals will vary, sometimes considerably between communities under scrutiny. A common vision relating to the objectives of Beijing and its country needs to be legitimised in order to argue whether this has directly influenced China in a beneficial way. Depending on how this research is developed and taken forward in the future will influence the way in which data is recorded and the evidence presented. References Black, T.R. (1999). Doing Quantitative Research in the Social Sciences. London. Sage. Blaxter, L et al. (1996). How to Research. Buckingham. OU Press. Broudehoux, A Spectacular Beijing: The Conspicuous Construction Of An Olympic Metropolis, Journal of Urban Affairs, Volume 29 Issue 4 Brunt, P. (1997) Market Research in Travel and Tourism. Oxford. Butterworth – Heinemann. Bryman, A and D. Cramer. (1997). Quantitative Data Analysis with SPSS for Windows. London. Routledge. Burns, P.M. (1999). An Introduction to Tourism and Anthropology. London. Routledge. Campanella, T.J (2008) The Concrete Dragon: Chinas Urban Revolution and What It Means for the World: Princeton Architectural Press Clarke, M, M. Riley, et al. (1999) Research methods in hospitality, tourism and leisure. Thompson International. Cook I and Crang M. (1996) Doing Ethnography. CATMOG. Norwich. Garnaut, R, Huang, Y (2001) Growth Without Miracles: Readings on the Chinese Economy in the Era of Reform: Oxford University Press Higham, J (1999) Commentary — Sport as an Avenue of Tourism Development: An Analysis of the Positive and Negative Impacts of Sport Tourism, Current Issues in Tourism Vol. 2, No. 1 Imrie, R (2007) Olympiad Dreams of Urban Renaissance, Modern Language Assoc, Volume 122, Number 1 Mackerras, C, Yorke, A (1991) The Cambridge Handbook of Contemporary China: Cambridge University Press Nong ye bu (2006) China in the Global Economy Environment, Water Resources and Agricultural Policies: Lessons from China and OECD Countries: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development Ong,R (2004) New Beijing, Great Olympics: Beijing and its Unfolding Olympic Legacy, Stanford Journal of East Asian Affairs, Vol 4, no.2 Owen, J.G (2008) Estimating the Cost and Benefit of Hosting Olympic Games: What Can Beijing Expect from Its 2008 Games? The Industrial Geographer, vol 3, issue 1 Saunders, M.K. Lewis, P. Thornhill, A. (2006) Research Methods for Business Students, (4th ed), Harlow, Prentice Hall Publications. UNEP (2008) Beijing 2008 Olympic Games: An Environmental Review By United Nations Environment Programme, United Nations Environment Programme Published by UNEP/Earthprint, 2008. Available from http://www.unep.org/publications/eBooks/beijing-report/Default.aspx?bid=ID0EWBBG Wu, F, Webber, K (2004) the rise of â€Å"foreign gated communities† in Beijing: between economic globalization and local institutions: Elsevier Ltd. Xu, X, Gao, J, Dockery, D.W, Chen Y (1997) Air pollution and daily mortality in residential areas of Beijing, China. In: Research papers on interrelationship between population growth in developing countries and global environment, Volume II. Tokyo, Japan, National Institute of Population and Social Security Research, 1997 Mar 3. : 321- 1 [2] Garnaut, R, Huang, Y (2001) Growth Without Miracles: Readings on the Chinese Economy in the Era of Reform [3] Xu, X, Gao, J, Dockery, D.W, Chen Y (1997) Air pollution and daily mortality in residential areas of Beijing, China. In: Research papers on interrelationship between population growth in developing countries and global environment, Volume II. Tokyo, Japan, National Institute of Population and Social Security Research, 1997 Mar 3. : 321- [4] Broudehoux, A Spectacular Beijing: The Conspicuous Construction Of An Olympic Metropolis, Journal of Urban Affairs, Volume 29 Issue 4 [5] Owen, J.G (2008) Estimating the Cost and Benefit of Hosting Olympic Games: What Can Beijing Expect from Its 2008 Games? The Industrial Geographer, vol 3, issue 1 [6] Burns, P.M. (1999). An Introduction to Tourism and Anthropology. London. Routledge. [7] Saunders, M.K. Lewis, P. Thornhill, A. (2006) Research Methods for Business Students, (4th ed), Harlow, Prentice Hall Publications. [8] Black, T.R. (1999). Doing Quantitative Research in the Social Sciences. London. Sage. [9] Cook I and Crang M. (1996) Doing Ethnography. CATMOG. Norwich.

The Rise in Political Power of 17th Century England and France :: European Europe History

The Rise in Political Power of 17th Century England and France In the seventeenth century, the political power of the Parliament in England, and the Monarchy in France increased greatly. These conditions were inspired by three major changes: the aftermath of the reformation, the need for an increased governmental financing, and the reorganizing of central governments. These three points were each resolved in a different way in both England and in France. The first major point which eventually increased political power was the aftermath of the Protestant reformation. In England, after the establishment of the separate Anglican church of England there were many protestant groups left in England still in conflict. These groups all tried to push and pull parliament in their favor -- which ultimately made it so that nothing could be done. These conflicts even came to the point of bloody civil wars and suffering on both sides of the fighting. Parliament ultimately decided to stop these wars by creating religious Act of Toleration (1689) for the non-conformist protestants. For many people, this caused more unity in England and increased power. In France, the decision was made to unify the country through the establishment of a single religious authority, the Catholic Church. The king of France became the heart of this policy, which gave him control of religion when this went into effect. The next major point was the increase in need for governmental financing. In England, taxing had become under the control of Parliament. In addition to this, the cost of running a government in general had gone up and the country needed more money. Because the king didn't have as much power to tax as he pleases, the government could make a firm and accurate taxation of the people. In France, the price of government had also gone up. However, here the was a monarchy and a king with great control over the government. Using his control of the economy, a strong "Mercantilism" system was used aimed at maximizing foreign exports and reserves. The king became the center of this new power. The last major point which increased political power was the reorganizing of the central governments in both England and in France. The economic changes in this century required new relationships between the King and his subjects. In England, the parliament because of this need, grew to have power over the king and cause great toleration of people's

Scouts Maturation through the Evil in the World Essay -- English Liter

Scouts Maturation through the Evil in the World Harper Lees, To Kill a Mockingbird is a very complex novel that has many plots and many evils. Lee tells of an innocent black man accused of rape by a detestable family. She also tells of a man locked up in his house and isolated from the rest of the world. The narrator, Scout, learns about this turpitude, and this ultimately leads to her maturation throughout the story. The three main heinous acts are the way Tom Robinson is treated, the way Boo Radley is isolated from the rest of the world, and the way Bob Ewell commits the unspeakable. One of the main evils in the story is the way Tom Robinson is accused and convicted of rape. At the start of the book Scout calls those who are black, ''niggers''. This demonstrates that at the start of the book Scout did not consider black people to be as good as white people. Instead, she listened to everything that the town said about black people. This quote shows that Scout was still rather immature and had a lot of growing to do. When the jury walks in from Tom"s trial, Scout says to herself, 'I saw something only a lawyer"s child could be expected to see, could be expected to watch for, and it was like watching Atticus walk into the street, raise a shoulder, and pull the trigger but watching all the time knowing the gun was empty'"' (pg. 211). Scout is finally beginning to feel some compassion for Tom Robinson, a black person, after learning of the evil that has been done to him. She is able to realize that Tom Robinson is going to found guilty and feels horrible about it inside.''Naw, Jem, I think there"s just one kind of folks. Folks (pg. 227).' Towards the very end of the book, Scout has finally matured enough ... ...used for his death. Bob he is the one who ruined Tom"s life and ultimately killed him. Tom was just an innocent person, a mockingbird, who was accused and convicted, of a crime that he most certainly did not commit. This quote of Scout"s was so profound, and it was so amazing that she would understand the concept of a '"'mockingbird'"' at such a young age. Therefore, it is clear that Scout has developed quite a bit since the beginning of the story. Towards the beginning of To Kill a Mockingbird, it was clear that Scout still had a lot of maturing to do, but throughout the story, she matured quite a bit. The main factor that led to her growing up was learning of all of the corruption in Maycomb. Even though this evil was obviously not good for people such as Tom Robinson and Boo Radley, Scout would not have grown nearly as much in three years without it.

Resistance of Change in Chinese Society in the Beginning of 20’s Century

Resistance of Change Ding Ling’s â€Å"A Day†, Lu Xun’s â€Å"A Madman’s Diary,† and Yu Dafu’s â€Å"Sinking† are all works that have been written in the time of a crucial change in China. Although the stories are fictional, the writers manage to reflect and correlate their characters to the current state of their homeland. Reading the listed works we see that its characters possess many common traits such as suffering, humility, depression, and much love and patriotism for China. The authors use character’s personal difficulties, to illustrate how complex it is for China to abolish its conservative, deep-rooted, traditional ways for new ones.In â€Å"The Diary of a Madman† by Lu Xun, we see a character that is in a state of constant paranoia. He is considered to be a madman by his immediate society that is greatly influenced by old Chinese morals and traditions of imperialism and Confucianism. He believes that his social circle practices cannibalism and sooner or later he will be eaten. On numerous occasions he questions the reasons behind this immoral practice which he believes is real. Although his actual perceptions of his surroundings might be erroneous in reality, we notice a valid metaphoric meaning in his view; cannibalism as suppression of people.He doesn’t understand why people are not willing to give up their old customs of cannibalism. He claims that some who used to practice cannibalism in the past realized its immorality and stopped, yet most continue to live by old traditions. He argues immorality of old traditions should be exemplifying the west as a By illustrating this inability of social change the character demonstrates the society as one of great tradition. The character’s desire for change illustrates the revolutionary times that China was undergoing at the time.He wanted the Chinese society to abandon its traditional beliefs which were constraining their liberali ty. Order, discipline, and oppressive imperial traditions of their background influenced by Confucianism strongly shaped their beliefs and habits, making it difficult to accept new modern principles. The character feels helpless while observing his society’s challenge to change. Although we see the character’s distress, his connection and love towards China is illustrated in his last words of the diary. Declaring to â€Å"Save the Children†, the character conveys his patriotic beliefs in times of agony.We see that regardless of social resistance to change the characters’ hope of a better future for China persists, illustrating the great patriotism that is integrated in Chinese society and culture. In Ding Ling’s story â€Å"A Day,† we also see a character whose emotional state correlates to her surrounding society. In the story, a young woman lives in a poor part of a metropolis city, â€Å"under the jurisdiction of a few imperialist nation s†(12). She despises this split society, which is made of â€Å"fat bellied† capitalists and the filthy poor working class that labors for the former.Observing the miserable working class routinely occupied in their â€Å"back-breaking† tasks makes her feel depressed. She pities them and wishes she could help them realize that they deserve a better living. She thinks that if only she could influence those people, to open their eyes to a better future, she would improve their lives. She makes an attempt to improve her maid’s way of thinking, trying to melt her gloom, but soon feels anguished herself. When she considers people’s â€Å"ignorant ways of thinking and their purely selfish desires† she hopelessly gives up. The lives of those people are wretched and their minds are numbed, they are stripped of all hope and ideas as they eke out a living from one day to the next†. She sees her society suffering in this â€Å"meaningless existen ce† and not being able to change. This resistance to change irritates her greatly. She realizes that the mentality of these people is degraded by imperialistic domination for many years and is difficult to abandon. Those similar self degrading traits can also be detected in the character.Her immediate company that visits her daily takes advantage of her humbleness and overwhelms her with their sentiments regarding the ills of China. Her submissiveness restrains her desire to argue her position and take any measures. Depressed, she wants to isolate herself from everybody and sink in her daydream; the only delight of her day. We see a reflecting relationship between society and the character. Society makes her depressed and she is hopeless of change. Dreaming about a better life, she is still not able to take any actions that would help her break through this cycle of misery.While in the past two stories, we see characters that were disturbed by difficulties of change in their s ocieties, in â€Å"Sinking† by Yu Dafu the main character is troubled by his personal complexities. Various emotional problems such as loneliness, hatred, fear, sexual frustration, paranoia, and other self degrading traits lead him to a suicide. A Chinese native and a patriot, he is influenced by Chinese traditional morals and beliefs that suffocate his desire to acquaint to a new environment in Japan, where he attends school as a foreign student.Discipline and order induced in him by Confucianism of imperialistic China restrain his adaptation in this new liberal setting. We see that his relationship with his new society is hurting because of his long-established morality. He feels that his schoolmates reject him, but his paranoiac attitude and reserved appearance prevent him from making any friends. Failing to make an attempt to connect with the Japanese students, whom he considers his enemies, he loathes them even more. He is resentful that his beloved China is in time of c haos while Japan is thriving and that distances him from his surroundings even more.He is sexually frustrated and unable to connect with girls. He tries to physically ease his frustration but feels sickened and considers it to be immoral. Having been influenced by Confucian tradition, he constantly tries to discipline and improve himself, yet his attempts are always overwhelmed by new desires and beliefs. Influenced by western literature, he finds peace when he recites poetry written by romantic writers and spends his sole time appreciating nature. This aspiration of western culture and liberal thinking constantly competes with the previous morality of the character.His personal conditions and experiences represent, and are the effects of, the undergoing struggles of Chinese society during the time of political chaos. After the overthrow of the Qing Dynasty, China did not have a real government. The society feels rejected, because other countries are not willing to step in and help establish a new administration. Although people anticipate a new liberal government, soon another Emperor takes office. Moral and traditional philosophy infiltrated by Confucianism made the Chinese culture humble and fearful just like the character’s personality.While manifesting many strong feelings of hate, sorrow, and frustration, the character is unable to take any measures to change his perceptions. In the end of the story the character commits suicide, stating; â€Å"O China, My China, you are the cause of my death! I wish you could become rich and strong soon!†¦ Many, many of your children are still suffering. † We can see that regardless of all the struggles he went through, the character is a great patriot of his country, and while he does not see any hope for his own healing, his sorrow and death symbolizes his hope for his Country and future generations.Contradiction We see that the characters in all three stories have various emotional and psychologica l traits that reflect China in its time of turmoil. We also see that all characters ultimately demonstrated great patriotism towards their country. In order to understand the reasons behind those qualities we have to observe a number of factors from authors’ perspective. Lu Xun, Yu Dafu, and Ding Ling were all authors that were greatly influenced by the revolutionary times in China and their stories illustrate, in part, their own feelings towards their society.The overthrow of the emperor, in the beginning of twenties century brought a new wind of change. People started to believe that new times are about to form. Western culture and political approach started to inspire people to believe that a better future is around the corner. The characters in our stories help us better to understand the circumstances and the condition of Chinese society in those crucial times. At first we observe Lu Xun’s â€Å"A Diary of a Madman† in which we see a man that is perceived a s a madman by his society.Although in the story it might be so, we can identify a certain metaphor that symbolizes the character’s wisdom. While cannibalism was actually practiced in some instances in Imperial China, Lu Xun drew a picture that resembled the old imperialistic China that suppressed its society, â€Å"eating† their liberty. Imperialism vanished by the time all three stories have been written, yet society is still unable to change their old mentality. This resistance to change because of old settled-in traditions can also be seen in both â€Å"A Day† and â€Å"Sinking.And yet Ding Ling, similar to Lu Xun, in her story portrays mainly the difficulties of social change, Yu Dafu illustrates them on an individual that is also infected with old traditions overpowering his wish for change. Society formulates individuals that in turn makeup the former. The relationship between them is inevitable. It appears that all authors conveyed their personal outlook of their society through their stories. Resistance to change might have been the most difficult obstacle China had to overcome for a better tomorrow, and the offered stories showed us the disturbances of individuals in relation to their society.

Impacts of Alcoholism on Family Welfare Essay

CHAPTER ONE 1. 0 Introduction 1. 1 Introduction This chapter contains the background of the problem, statement of the problem, purpose of the study, objectives of the study, research questions, justification of the study, limitations of the study, the scope of the study and the conceptual framework. 1. 2 Background to the Problem Seventy percent of Kenyan families are affected by alcoholism (Simiyu, 2006). Man has, over time, indeed come to acknowledge the fact that alcoholism is indeed destructive to the human race. This explains the reason as to why numerous studies have been conducted and some are still underway in relations to various areas where alcoholism is indeed a major threat. It is however important to note that most of these studies are mainly centered on the alcoholic. Alcoholism is a term that has many and sometimes conflicting definitions. In current and historic usage, alcoholism refers to a condition that results from continued consumption of alcohol despite the social and medical impacts that are raised by the vice. Alcoholism also referred to, in the nineteenth century and partly in the twentieth century, as dipsomania, may also refer to pre-occupation with or compulsion towards the consumption of alcohol and/or impaired ability to recognize the negative impacts of excessive alcohol consumption. The Macmillan dictionary (2002) defines the word alcoholism as a medical condition that makes it difficult to control the amount of alcohol you drink. 1. 2. 0 Alcoholism The dictionary definition of alcoholism is, a disorder characterized by the excessive consumption of and dependence on alcoholic beverages leading to physical and physiological harm and impaired social and vocational functionality. The Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research defines alcoholism as 1 a layman’s term for alcohol dependence and abuse. The medical encyclopedia defines alcoholism as a popular term for two disorders, alcohol abuse and alcohol dependent. The definition of alcoholism adopted for this study was a disorder that involves long term, repeated, uncontrolled, compulsive and excessive use of alcoholic beverages that impairs the drinker’s health and social relations. In this study alcoholism was characterized by frequent drinking, drinking five or more days in a week. 1. 2. 1 Family Welfare The Macmillan dictionary (2002) defines a family as a group of people who live together and are all related to one another, usually consisting of parents and children. It also defines welfare as the health and happiness of people. The definition of family welfare adopted in this study encompassed physical and psychological health, finances, employment, social life and relationships Velleman, (as cited at www.alcoholandfamilies. org). Family welfare was characterized by economy, health and safety, legal proceedings, marriage stability, responsibilities, and withdrawal. The Macmillan dictionary (2002) defines economy as the careful use of money, products or time that very little is wasted. Family economy in this study was characterized by the amount of money spent on alcohol, investment ventures and savings in respect to individual’s income. The dictionary definition of health is the condition of your body especially whether or not you are ill. Safety on the other hand refers to the fact that a thing is safe. For purpose of this study health and safety was characterized by instances of alcohol related illness or disorders, domestic violence both on women and children attributable to alcohol, accidents or any other act done which exposed the individual to harm as a result of the influence of alcohol on the person (Alcoholic) or on the family, and psychological state. 2 Responsibility is defined by the Macmillan dictionary (2002), as a state of being in charge of someone or something and of making sure that they do or what happens to them is right or satisfactory. In the study responsibility was characterized by instances of family roles of individuals (for example paying school fees by the parents), good physical and psychological availability for the family, work problems due to alcohol and its consequent negative impacts (Alcoholism). Marriage stability is a situation where marriage can raise up beyond the challenges which can lead to its break-up (Akem, 2009). For purpose of this study marriage stability was characterized by instances of divorce, separation, quarrels and disagreements. Withdrawal is to no longer take part in something or stop someone from taking part (Macmillan 2002). The definition of withdrawal adopted for this study was helping the person to get rid of his/her body off alcohol as well as the harmful physical effects of alcohol, Schuckit & mace, (as cited at www. answers. com) Withdrawal in this study was characterized by attempted instances to stop alcohol consumption by either the individual or third party efforts and the respective challenges posed by the same. 1. 2. 2 Alcoholism Unmasked Up-to 50 percent of murders involves alcohol, and three or more people die in Britain due to alcohol (Holden, 1996). Approximately fourteen million people in the United States of America are alcoholics, alcohol being the third leading killer in the United States, killing twenty thousand people and injuring 1. 5 million due to drunk drivers, Drink, (as cited in Katherine, 2009). Drink also reported that 65 percent of the aggressive attacks against women involve use of alcohol by the offender with more than 60 percent of the homicides involving the use of alcohol by either the offender or the victim. According to Kenya Medical Research Institute (KEMRI) alcohol abuse affects 70 percent of families in Kenya. 3 In November 2001, over 140 people died and scores of others lost their sight after consuming an illegal laced drink. In June 2005 illegal brew laced with industrial alcohol caused the deaths of 49 people and more than 174 people were hospitalized after drinking the home made Kwona-Mbee, literally ‘see the way ahead’, brew containing methanol a toxic wood alcohol added to the concoction to give it more kick (Simiyu, 2006). According to a study carried out by WHO (2004) involving 188 patients evaluated after motor vehicle crashes in all hospitals located in Eldoret found out that 23. 4 percent were blood alcohol concentration (BAC) positive and 12. 2 percent were intoxicated. This research work indicates the impacts of alcoholism on health and safety of the alcoholic, but they fail to mention the impacts of this disorder in the family setting. Holden (1996), states that alcohol does no good for the economy, costing the British industry 1. 7 British billion pounds. There thus existed need to establish a clear link between family economy and alcoholism. About a third of alcoholics recover whether they are in treatment program or not, Vallant, (as cited in Santrock, 2005). Studies from the national institute on alcohol abuse and alcoholism (NIAAA) in United States of America indicate that of all drugs, withdrawal from alcohol differs most significantly. This is so because it can be directly fatal, with an alcoholic having no serious situations having a significant risk of dying from the direct effect of withdrawal if not managed properly. This established the need to investigate how withdrawal as an aspect of family welfare is affected by alcoholism. One in three divorces is due to behavioral problems linked to drinking (Holden, 1996). In Kenya, most domestic misunderstandings are attributed to alcohol, (Simiyu, 2006). The study, therefore sought to find out the impact of alcohol on marriage stability. 4 1. 3 Statement of the Problem Research has shown that alcohol indeed has major impacts on the life of its victims. Indeed no man is an island; hence an alcoholic does not live in isolation. It is therefore expected that whereas alcohol is not good for the drunkard, it is also not good for the family of the drinker. It robs them the morally upright person that they looked up to. What might be the various aspects of the family that might be affected by having an alcoholic in the family? According to Cork, (as cited at www. alcoholandfamilies. org), researchers have often shown much concern for the alcoholic, while overlooking his/her family. There was therefore need to determine the various aspects of the family that were affected by having an alcoholic in the family. 1. 4 Purpose of the Study The purpose of the study was to investigate and establish the nature of relationship that existed between alcoholism and various aspects of family welfare of reforming alcoholics in Suneka division, using case study research design with a view of bringing to the light the intensity of alcoholism in our society. Alcoholism was characterised by frequent drinking, drinking five or more days per week. Family welfare was characterised by family health and safety, family economy, responsibility, marriage stability, instances of legal proceedings and withdrawal. 1. 5 Research Objectives The research sought to establish the impacts of alcoholism on family welfare by specifically finding out: 1. The challenges posed by the negative impacts of alcoholism on family economy. 2. The challenges posed by the negative impacts of alcoholism on marriage stability. 3. The challenges posed by the negative impacts of alcoholism on family health and safety. 5 4. Problems associated with withdrawal from alcoholism. 5. The impacts and frequency of alcoholism influence on legal proceedings perpetrated against alcoholics within the family. 6. The link between alcoholism and neglect of responsibilities. 1. 6 Research Questions In order to establish the kind of relationship that existed between alcoholism and family welfare, the research was guided by the following research questions: 1. What are the challenges posed by the negative impacts of alcoholism on family economy? 2. What are the challenges posed by the negative impacts of alcoholism on marriage stability? 3. What are the challenges posed by the negative impacts of alcoholism on family health and safety? 4. What are the problems associated with withdrawal from alcoholism? 5. What is the impact and frequency of alcoholism on legal proceedings perpetrated against alcoholics within the family? 6. What is the link between alcoholism and neglect of responsibilities? 1. 7 Significance of the Study The findings of the research sought to help: 1. Site out the impact of alcoholism in the local context which will act as an eye opener to the stakeholders concerned for instance the Ministry of Health, Human rights activists and the entire NGO community to see the need to help the affected parties. 2. Occasion, as a result, setting up of appropriate programs to help curb the menace caused by alcoholism, for instance setting up a rehabilitation centre. 3. Alcoholics see the need to stop taking alcohol, having realized the pain they inflict on their families. 6 1. 8 Limitations of the Study The study was based on a sample size of 30 respondents drawn from an accessible population which consists of individuals from Suneka community in Kisii south district. Owing to scarcity of resources, precautions should therefore be taken while generalizing findings of this research to other localities. This may be majorly due to environmental and social factors that may factor in to invalidate the findings. 1. 9 The Scope of the Study The study primarily focused on the impact of alcoholism on family welfare, a case study of Suneka division, Kisii south district, Nyanza province in Kenya. The study was based on a sample of 30 respondents and was conducted between the months of February and March 2009. 7 1. 10 Conceptual Framework ALCOHOLISM FAMILY WELFARE FAMILY HEALTH AND SAFETY MARRIAGE STABILITY FAMILY ECONOMY ALCOHOLISM RESPONSIBILITY WITHDRAWAL LEGAL IMPLICATIONS Fig. 1. 0 A conceptual framework on the relationship between alcoholism and family welfare. The study sought to find out the relationship that existed between alcoholism and components of family welfare namely: family health and safety, marriage stability, family economy, withdrawal, and the legal implications. 8 CHAPTER TWO 2. 0 Literature Review 2. 1 Introduction This chapter contains past studies in relation to alcohol and alcoholism. It has also highlighted the historical background. It particularly focuses on the impacts of alcoholism on the economy, health and safety, legal implications, marriage stability, withdrawal and responsibilities which were the pillars of this study right from the global, continental and local point of view. It also contains the critical review and the summary. 2. 2 Past Studies This section will shade light on the historical background of alcoholism, researched impacts, and the global, continental and local implications here in Kenya. 2. 2. 0 Historical Background The word alcoholism was first introduced by a Swedish physician Magnus Huss (1849) to mean poisoning by alcohol. It was later mentioned in France by M. Gabriel (1866) in his medical dissertation. This marked the evolution of the word alcoholism (as cited at www. asnwers. com/library/psychoanalysisdictionary). The most rigorous definition of an alcoholic (a person suffering from alcoholism) is the one provide by Pierre Fouquet, â€Å"An Alcoholic is any man or woman who has lost the ability to do without alcohol. † The production of alcohol dates back, to around 1400-1600 BC (Before Christ), in the Munainus region between black and Caspian seas. Commercial production of alcohol was well underway by 1500 BC, Court Wright, (as cited at www. asnwers. com/library). Alcohol is probably the oldest drug known to humanity. It was easy for the primitive people to discover that fruits and juices left to stand in warm places easily fermented to form alcoholic mixtures. Alcohol production is mainly founded on yeast cells, which in presence of warmth and 9 water continue to grow by using up the sugar until the sugar is finished or alcohol content kills them. Alcohol is a deadly poison and in high enough quantities, it kills all living things including the yeast cells that produce it, Weil & Rosen, (as cited at www. alcoholicsanonymous. org)! It was initially believed (Sigmund Freud, Karl Abraham, Sandor Ferenczi) that alcohol does not create symptoms but only promotes them, removing inhibitions and destroying sublimation (Descombey, 2002). The theory of alcoholism (1905d) is summarized in terms of predominance among men, beginning at the onset of puberty, Sigmund, (as cited at www. answers. com/ library). Magnus the Swedish professor of medicine distinguishes between two types of alcoholism that is, Acute alcoholism, which is due to temporary effects of alcohol taken within a short period of time- drunkenness and intoxication; Chronic alcoholism, which is a condition caused by habitual use of alcoholic beverages in poisonous amounts over a long period of time. Prior to the nineteenth century, alcoholism was seen as a moral weakness or criminal, rather than an illness. The new, â€Å"Disease† approach to alcoholism was started in America perpetrated by the, â€Å"Alcoholism movement. † It consisted of Alcoholics Anonymous (A self help group, setup in 1935), National committee for Education on alcoholism (later The National Council on Alcoholism) and the YALE, centre for alcohol studies. The, â€Å"Alcoholism movement† Quickly spread to Britain and subsequently to the rest of the world (Heather & Robertson, 1997). According to WHO (2004) In Africa, for instance, alcohol related beverages are very predominant among ethnic groups branded in different names passed from one generation to another. Among the common alcoholic beverages are: Chang’aa-Which is common among Samburu pastoralists living in northern Kenya and the whole of Kenya at large. In fact the word seems to have gained a national appeal in Kenya along with Busaa which are often used in Kisii among 10 the Gusii community. Others include: Palm wine (common along the Kenyan coast), banana beer (made from a fermented mixture of banana and sorghum flour) and Muratina (made from sugarcane and Muratina fruit-a fruit grown in Kenya). Among the Gusii community, the common alcoholic beverages used from times immemorial include Chang’aa and Busaa. Chang’aa is a distilled product resulting from malted millet, maize or sorghum alongside molasses the mixture of which has been fermented for a number of days, for instance a week. The fermented malted millet, maize or sorghum mixture in its crude state (nondistilled) produces Busaa. 2. 2. 1 Global Impact 2. 2. 1. 0 Health Alcohol has raised major attention on the international ground mainly due to its negative impacts in the society. Topping the list is the link between alcohol and its impact on health. It is important to note that alcohol on its own can cause a medical disorder known as alcoholism which was the pillar stone of this study. Studies indicate that alcoholism can arise in a genetic disorder which can be transferred to the offspring of the victim just like any other genetic disorders. It is estimated that 60 percent of those who become alcoholics are believed to have a genetic predisposition for it, Vallant, (as cited in Santrock, 2005). Hamgin and others (1999) also reported that there is a high frequency of alcoholics in first degree relatives of alcoholics. Research has shown that alcohol damages various organs in our bodies resulting to chronic diseases. Some of these organs include: 1. The Liver: Excessive consumption of alcohol results to liver cirrhosis and liver hepatitis. Hepatitis is the inflammation of the liver while liver cirrhosis is a liver ailment that interferes with the liver’s normal structure and function. Both diseases can be fatal 11 2. Blood: Excessive consumption of alcohol interferes with both the structure and function of blood. High quantities of alcohol damages red blood cells making them to become abnormally large as well as the destruction of white blood cells which results to low immunity whereas damaging of red blood cells may lead to cancer in extremities (NIAAA). The NIAAA in the United States of America suggests that a connection exists between heavy alcohol consumption and increased cancer risk. In fact 3. 56 percent cancer cases all over the world are related to alcohol drinking resulting to 3. 5 percent of all cancer deaths. 3. Heart and circulatory system: Alcohol drinking affects these body systems causing such disease as heart attacks, stroke (which arises when a blood clot from the heart enters the circulatory system into the brain blocking blood circulation in the brain) Alcohol is also not good for pregnant women for it can lead to various birth disorders such as, Fetal Alcohol syndrome (FAS), Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (FASD). These are permanent birth defects on off-springs of women who consume material alcohol during pregnancy (NIAAA). Other health implications include Sexual dysfunction and epilepsy and in extremities even causing death directly. Despite the numerous researches on the implications of alcohol on health, not much has been done on the frequency of such health implications on families affected by alcoholism. However, for an alcoholic it is important to note, perhaps not for his/her sake but for the children’s sake, that if they continue the path to alcoholism they are putting their children at the exposure to this disorder since comprehensive studies have shown that children of alcoholics’ show a three-to-four times risk of developing the disorder. Recent studies have proved that alcoholism is 40 to 60 percent attributed to genes, leaving 40 to 50 percent on environmental influences, Schuckit; Anthenelle Schuckit, (as cited in Schonbeck, 2004). Alcohol is not also good for the brain causing psychological harm in the long run with instances such 12 as depression and anxiety with as many as 25 percent of alcoholics presenting severe psychiatric disturbances. Alcohol effect reveals an overall sluggish brain activity (Revolution health, 2007). 2. 2. 1. 1 Safety Alcoholism has also raised eye blows in relation to its influence on safety in the society. Top on this list is road accidents. Indeed in most accidents grossly impaired judgment reduced reflex activity and reduced visual perception all play their part. In the United States 41 percent of all traffic fatalities are alcohol related. On average, alcohol related motor vehicle accidents occur after every 30 minutes injuring 500,000 Americans yearly with 30 percent of all Americans involved in such accidents at one time during their life time while 50 percent of such trauma cases end up dead, (www. niaaa. nih. gov). According to Santrock (2005), 60 percent of homicides involve use of alcohol by either the offender or victim and 20 percent of suicide cases involve use of alcohol by the victim, with 65 percent of aggressive instances against women involving the use of alcohol by the offender. Santrock also reports that alcohol increases instances of aggressiveness; to be precise alcoholics are more easily provoked when drunk than when they are sober to unleash harsh words, throw a punch or pull a trigger of a gun, Dougherty, Benelt & others; Fale-Steward, golden & Schumacher, (as cited in Santrock, 2005). According to Seto & Barbaree (as cited in Santrock, 2005), it is unfortunate that the people who are already prone to aggression are also the ones who are likely to drink and then become violent when they become intoxicated! People under the influence of alcohol, almost commit half of the rapes and other violent crimes, Abbey, Ross& McDuffie; Abbey & others, (as cited in Santrock, 2005). All these comprehensive research focuses on the impacts of alcoholism on the alcoholic’s safety but fails to shade light on the suffering which the family has to undergo as 13 a result. Equally most of these research findings do not bring out clearly the frequency of such hazards among families of alcoholics’. 2. 2. 1. 2 Marriage Stability It is estimated that more than 40 percent of separated or divorced women were married to or live with a problem drinker with more than three fourths of non-fatal female victims of domestic violence having reported that the assailant had been drinking (www. alcohlics-info. com). According to Holden (1996) one in every three divorces are attributed to alcohol drinking. It is clear while alcohol seems to be a clear threat to stability in marriages it is unclear, on where exactly it impairs on marriage stability. 2. 2. 1. 3 Responsibility It is estimated that a bulk of 10 percent work force in the United Kingdom have problems due to alcohol (Holden, 1996). According to Velleman, alcohol affects the quality of parenting, although the aspects of quality of parenting are not well defined (as cited at www. alcoholandfamilies. org). At the prime of alcoholism the alcoholic manifests an utter disregard to everything, including shelter, family, food, and job. These occasional flights into oblivion are best described, ironically, as, ‘Drinking to get away from the problems’ caused by drinking (www. alcoholics-info. com). These studies indicate a clear link between alcoholism and the role it plays in the execution of responsibilities at large but fails to pin-point the particular impact of alcoholism on family responsibilities and the frequency of the items mentioned above in a family setting. Santrock (2005), acknowledges the fact that binge drinking, usually associated with high BAC, to be associated with class absences, physical injuries, trouble with police and unprotected sex all instances of neglect of responsibilities by children (college students) who are a unit of the family. 14 2. 2. 1. 4 Legal Implications There are at least fifty thousand recognized alcoholics in Victoria-Australia, with one-hundred thousand drunk and disorderly convictions each year (Wright, 1991). Drinking at inappropriate times can lead to legal proceedings such as Drinking and driving, beyond the legal set limits, or public disorder. According to NIAAA (1997) forty percent of assaults are alcohol related. About 3/4 of all prisoners in 1997 were involved in alcohol or drug abuse in some way leading to their current offence (United States Department of Justice Statistics, 1997). From research already conducted there seems to be a link between alcohol and crime but on the other side no studies exists on the frequency of legal situations encountered by alcoholics in a family setting or their families or challenges faced by such families when faced by such occurrences. 2. 2. 1. 5 Withdrawal Unlike withdrawal from other drugs, withdrawal from alcohol differs most significantly from other drugs, since it can be directly fatal (NIAAA, 1997). For example it is extremely rare for heroin or cocaine withdrawal to be fatal. When people die from heroin or cocaine withdrawal they typically have serious underlying health problems which are made worse by the strain of acute withdrawal. An alcoholic however, who has no serious health, issues has a significant risk of dying from the direct effects of withdrawal if it is not properly managed. When alcohol is stopped, especially abruptly, the person’s nervous system suffers from great brain imbalances. This can result in symptoms that include anxiety, life threatening seizures, delirium tremens and hallucinations, shakes and possible heart failure. During withdrawal especially acute withdrawal symptoms tend to subside after 1 – 3 weeks. Less severe symptoms (e. g. insomnia and anxiety) may continue as part of a post withdrawal syndrome gradually improving with abstinence for a year or more. Withdrawal symptoms begin to subside as the body and central nervous system makes adaptations to reverse tolerance and restore 15 functions towards normal body functioning. It is evident that from completed research the habitual user experiences hangover (a combination of head ache, nausea, fatigue and depression) a situation which may be very challenging. According to Hamigan & others, (as cited in Thom, 2009) one in nine individuals who drink continue the path to alcoholism. However, according to Vallant, (as cited in Santrock, 2005) by the age of 65 a third of alcoholics are dead or in terrible shape; a third is still trying to bear addiction and a third is abstinent or drinking only socially. Vallant found the factors leading to successful withdrawal to be predicted by: 1. Having a strong negative experience with alcohol, for instance serious medical emergency 2. Finding a substitute depends, for instance meditation, exercise or overeating (which also has serious medical implications) 3. Developing a positive relationship such as a caring employer or a new marriage 4. Joining a support group such as Alcoholics anonymous (AA). Vallant acknowledges that more than 18 million patients currently need alcohol treatment and only one fourth ever get treatment for a number of reasons such as lack of availability of such facilities lack of adequate space, limited funding or because drinkers object to the treatment. These studies clearly depict the challenges facing withdrawal from the medical stand point. However, it is important to note that not much has been done on the impacts of withdrawal on the family set-up. 2. 2. 1. 6 Economy Alcohol also does no good for the economy. In 1989 it cost British industry 1. 7 billion United Kingdom pounds (Holden, 1996). According to a recent special report prepared for United States Congress by NIAAA, the impact of alcohol on society including violence, traffic accidents, lost work productivity and premature deaths, cost America in aggregate an estimated 188 billion United States dollars 16 annually. However, not much has been done on the impacts of alcohol on family economy and personal financial management and stability as separate from National or Global economic impacts. 2. 3 Continental Impact The continent Africa is characterized by poverty and unemployment. Extensive research has shown that these factors are a contributory to the start of alcohol intake and consequently alcoholism. African countries have high reported cases of domestic violence which are largely attributed to consumption of alcohol. Since most of the drinking population is poor and they can’t afford ‘expensive and classy’ commercial brands, they have opted for the cheap non-hygienical local brews. The drinking population also spends most of their finances on alcohol leaving their families financially unstable hence their family economy is in a terrible state. Excessive alcohol consumption also causes serious negative effect on fertility in both men and women: decreasing testicular and ovarian size, interfering with sperm and egg production and viability, disrupting menstrual cycles, and reducing libido. When pregnancy is achieved reduced quality of sperm and egg may significantly and permanently affect the quality of life, pre and post-natal, of the child. A child born to an alcohol using woman has a great risk of being born with fetal alcohol syndrome, which causes distinctive cranial and facial defects, including a smaller head size, shortening of the eyelids, and a lowered brain capability. Developmental disabilities, heart defects, and behavioral problems are also more likely. There has been an outcry among women from Mombasa, a town in the Kenyan coast, that alcohol intake among their men folk is making them incapable of performing their conjugal duties. Alcohol consumption has also caused numerous health hazards within the continental standing similar to what is being experienced globally. Among such diseases common in Africa include: liver disease, physical injuries due to short 17 term effects of alcohol leave alone the psychological ailments that the family of the alcoholic has to go through (Asenjo, 2009). It is however important to note that unlike in western countries, in Africa alcohol is more reserved to the male population. Women who drink are seen as a social vice associated with prostitution and immorality hence, as such alcohol has gained much prevalence among men and as such most alcoholics are men. It is ironical that since times immemorial women have always prepared the brew, but they give it to their male counterparts for consumption. Alcoholism also increases instances of marriage break down due to such factors as domestic violence, neglect of responsibility (a major problem) and the psychological impacts involved mostly among the women fork and the children of the alcoholic husband cum father. However, unlike in the developed countries where there exists, in abundance, institutions dedicated to aid alcoholics shake off their habits, such facilities are very rare in the black continent. These can be attributed to the fact that in most communities, alcohol consumption is regarded as a traditional artifact and as the saying goes, â€Å"Mwacha mila ni mtumwa â€Å"(A Swahili proverb which translates into, â€Å"He who abandons tradition is a foreigner†. Also this can be cited as a reason mainly responsible for low instances of withdrawal in the continent. Withdrawal, if any, is due to ones own efforts or in some instances pressure from a particular class in the community for instance, church or ones own family. It is, however, important to note that despite the ‘naked’ impacts (negative) caused by alcohol all over the continent, not much has been done to better understand the problem from a continental stand point and whatever presumptions that exists about alcoholism, are just mere generalizations, in that case, of what happens in the west to be applicable in Africa as well, which might not always be the case owing to the so obvious cultural and social difference 18 2. 4 Local Impact The devastating effects of alcohol and drugs on young people can be felt bare today. Experts have sounded alarming bells after two studies revealed that school children as young as eleven are falling prey to alcohol. Research at the African Mental Health foundation says that in the last four years the use of alcohol and other drugs among young people has increased by a staggering 71 percent. In Kenya, unrecorded alcohol consumption is estimated to be 5. 0 litres of pure alcohol per capita for population older than 15 years for the years after 1995, estimated by a group of key alcohol experts (WHO, 2004). A 1997 to 1998 survey sponsored by the Economic ad Social Research council and The British Institute